The Man Alexander Could Not Ignore
If Alexander was nicknamed Megas Alexandros, Alexander the Great, it was thanks to his bravery in battle, his military career, his gigantic empire, and undoubtedly one of the most exhilarating lives ever bequeathed to the history of humanity.
No one seemed able to resist him: men, women, Macedonians, Greeks, Persians, Indians, all bowed before him. Having been interested in Alexander's life for several years, reading and writing about him, one question kept troubling me: who, if not death itself, defeated Alexander?
The intrepid Macedonian never lost a battle, and even when he returned wounded, agonizing at the gates of the underworld, it was always as a victor.
Reexamining his epic, I realized that there was only one man who truly resisted him. Darius, the Great King? No. His close friends like Hephaestion or Ptolemy? Neither. It was a nearly unknown man who crossed Alexander's life like a meteor through the atmosphere. Though he bent before him, he never broke. His name: Memnon of Rhodes.
What can we say about this Greek commander who fought for Persia against Philip, Alexander's father, and then Alexander himself with real success before a premature death ended his plans for reconquest? The relationship between the two men was strong enough that Alexander would later bind himself to the family of his former enemy.
From Mercenary to Obligate
Before becoming one of Alexander's main opponents, Memnon spent his childhood in the shadow of his older brother, Mentor. Born around 380 BC, Memnon received a Greek education, due to the dominant culture on the island, and a military one, due to Rhodes' strategic and commercial position.
Enjoying a principle of autonomy but closely watched by the Persian administration, the island produced mercenaries who sold their skills to the Persians.
Thus, Memnon and his brother were employed by Artabazus, satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia, in revolt against the Great King Artaxerxes III. Confident, Artabazus decided to tie his destiny to the two Greeks by marrying their youngest sister, while Barsine, his daughter, married Mentor.
The two brothers were to lead the satrap's troops to victory but were quickly overwhelmed by an infinitely more numerous and powerful enemy in 354. Despite their recognized skills, they were forced to flee. Mentor fled to Egypt while Memnon joined Artabazus and Barsine, who found refuge in Pella, Macedonia, with Philip II, Alexander's father.
The Macedonian Interlude
They stayed in Macedonia for almost ten years, where Memnon may have met the young Alexander while he was being trained by his tutors, Leonidas and especially Aristotle. We like to imagine the experienced Greek soldier answering the curious young prince's questions, and it is touching, albeit tragic, to picture Memnon and Alexander speaking together in the Macedonian court.
A poignant scene: it would be the same Memnon who would face his former hosts years later when Alexander crossed the Hellespont to embark on the greatest conquest of all time.
When Alexander landed near Abydos in 334 BC, he was only twenty-two years old, but he already faced serious problems. His youth and boldness did not protect him from a cunning enemy who knew Macedonia very well.
Darius III, the Great King, had entrusted Memnon with a decisive role in resisting the Macedonian invader. Memnon of Rhodes had finally returned home because his elder brother Mentor, having entered the service of the Great King, had negotiated the return of his family. Mentor had since died, and Memnon had married Barsine, his widow.
The Strategy Alexander Feared
Prudent and aware of the immense potential of the Macedonian phalanxes and cavalry, the Rhodian advocated a scorched-earth tactic: retreat, burn the country's food resources, and deny Alexander the supplies he expected from conquest.
Well-informed, Memnon knew that the impatient Alexander had left everything behind and had only a limited margin of maneuver. The Macedonian king counted on enriching and feeding himself through victory.
"What impudence!" the Persian satraps could almost be heard saying. "He will be defeated by arms!"
Memnon, facing opposition from Persian nobles far from the Great King's court, had to admit defeat and resolved to fight. As a strategist, he occupied the eastern bank of a river, the Granicus. There, he would await Alexander and his army.
There, he had to face his former Macedonian hosts on behalf of Persia. To hell with feelings: he was a commander paid to fight, not to be sentimental.
Granicus and the Escape
Alexander was informed of the Persian position. He was only more motivated by Memnon's presence at the head of his enemies. Resentment? He surely had some, and the future would prove it.
"So here is Memnon, a great man!" he might have said ironically. "He himself came to my father seeking refuge from the Persians. And now? By Zeus, he is at the head of his former oppressors and the husband of his brother's widow, who allowed him to return home!"
The Granicus was a terrible Persian defeat, as it opened the gates of Asia Minor to Alexander. Memnon, however, managed to escape and, with the remnants of his forces, prepared a counterattack.
Unable to gather enough men for a decisive land battle, he retreated and ended up cornered in Halicarnassus, then in the city's fortress when the outer defenses fell into the hands of the invincible Macedonian.
The Resister of Halicarnassus
Realizing that he could do nothing against the furious advance of the Macedonian army in Asia, Memnon took refuge behind the thick walls of the coastal city of Halicarnassus.
Feeling safe after the city authorities had assured him that Halicarnassus would not capitulate, Memnon prepared an impossible riposte. As a general, he reorganized the defenses, had the city walls reinforced, strengthened the citadel overlooking the sea, and roused the city's defenders.
"Nothing is good with Alexander! He will annihilate your city and you with it!"
His speeches were approved by the cries of soldiers who believed in victory.
"The Great King, our master, is preparing an army that will destroy the Macedonians, and then you will have gained the glory of having resisted the most terrible scourge of this world!"
Nothing was less certain. Alexander was at the city gates, and Memnon had no news from the Great King, who was still far away. Darius III could gather immense forces from the four corners of his vast empire, but time was precisely what Memnon lacked.
A Sea Route to Revenge
Memnon had to make do. He often thought of his wife Barsine and his family, moving somewhere in Anatolia with the households of other Persian commanders. Inwardly worried, he showed nothing, being a good general whose first duty was to give confidence to his soldiers.
Alexander launched the assault. A breach was opened in the wall, and the enemy army poured through it. The poorly trained city guard was destroyed, and Memnon had to retreat to the citadel with the remaining Persian and Greek contingents.
Cursing Alexander, Memnon, from atop a tower, turned toward the sea, his only escape route, and taking the gods as witnesses, swore to counterattack.
The citadel of Halicarnassus held out. The siege dragged on too long for the Macedonian conqueror. Alexander decided to leave a garrison under the authority of Ada, the restored ruler of Caria, and continue his advance.
Memnon watched as the Macedonian army packed up and left for further conquests. The Greek saw this as the long-awaited moment to flee the citadel. Under cover of night, he deceived his enemies by boarding with the remaining troops and setting sail.
After a few days of navigation, he encountered other Persian ships. The Persians were still masters of the seas, and Memnon regained hope. His counterattack would finally take shape.
Cutting Alexander from Greece
"No need to join the front. We must cut Alexander off from his base: Greece. Our fleet is powerful enough to neutralize any reinforcements crossing the Hellespont. Athens is just waiting for a sign of weakness to revolt and strike against Macedonia. Let the division of the Greek cities destroy Alexander's ambitions. I will personally lead our troops in the Aegean Sea, where we will subdue the islands."
Memnon intelligently took advantage of the weakness of the Macedonian navy to take control of the seas. His aim was not merely to win battles, but to suffocate Alexander strategically.
Alexander closely followed Memnon's maneuvers, enraged at not having been able to eliminate his enemy at the Granicus or Halicarnassus. He himself was on the eve of a terrible battle against Darius, and Memnon's success threatened morale among troops who could feel trapped in Asia, with no secure way back.
Death at Mytilene
It was written that Alexander would never be defeated by a man. In 333 BC, he was only at the beginning of his glory. Thus, when he learned that Memnon had succumbed to illness during the siege of Mytilene, Alexander understood that one of the most dangerous obstacles to his conquest had vanished.
The Battle of Issus, immortalized by the famous mosaic of Pompeii, affirmed the power of a twenty-three-year-old man already being compared to a god.
Victor over Darius and many other kings, Alexander would later be linked to Barsine, the widow of Memnon, according to ancient tradition. Whether political, personal, or symbolic, that union of destinies remains striking: the conqueror of Asia bound himself to the family of the man who had nearly made Asia close around him like a trap.
Memnon of Rhodes did not defeat Alexander. But among all his opponents, he was perhaps the one who best understood how Alexander could be defeated.
Sources
- Livius, “Memnon of Rhodes”.
- Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander, Books I-II.
- Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, Book XVII.
